Pass Your GED
With Confidence

1. Number Sense & Operations

Number sense is the foundation of all GED math. You need fluency with integers, fractions, decimals, and percents.

Integers & Signed Numbers

• Adding integers: Same signs → add and keep sign. Different signs → subtract and take the sign of the larger absolute value. Example: −3 + (−5) = −8; −8 + 3 = −5
• Subtracting integers: Change to adding the opposite. 7 − (−3) = 7 + 3 = 10
• Multiplying/Dividing: Same signs = positive. Different signs = negative. (−4)(−3) = +12; (−4)(3) = −12
• Absolute value |x|: Distance from zero, always non-negative. |−9| = 9

Order of Operations — PEMDAS

Fractions

• Simplify: Divide numerator and denominator by their GCF (Greatest Common Factor). 12/18 = 2/3
• Add/Subtract: Must have common denominator. 2/3 + 1/4 = 8/12 + 3/12 = 11/12
• Multiply: Multiply numerators × numerators, denominators × denominators. 2/3 × 3/4 = 6/12 = 1/2
• Divide: Keep the first fraction, flip the second, multiply. 2/3 ÷ 4/5 = 2/3 × 5/4 = 10/12 = 5/6
• Mixed to improper: 2¾ = (2×4+3)/4 = 11/4

Decimals & Percents

• Decimal ↔ Percent: Move decimal 2 places. 0.35 = 35%; 0.07 = 7%
• Finding a percent: "What is 30% of 80?" → 0.30 × 80 = 24
• Percent of change: (New − Old) ÷ Old × 100. Price from $50→$65: (65−50)/50 × 100 = 30% increase
• Finding the whole: "15 is 25% of what number?" → 15 = 0.25 × x → x = 60

Ratios, Proportions & Rates

• Ratio: Comparison. 3:4 or 3/4. Always simplify.
• Proportion: Two equal ratios. Solve by cross-multiplying. 3/4 = x/12 → 4x = 36 → x = 9
• Unit rate: Rate with denominator of 1. 120 miles in 3 hours = 40 miles/hour
• Scale problems: 1 inch = 50 miles. Map shows 3.5 inches → 3.5 × 50 = 175 miles

2. Algebraic Reasoning (Largest Category — ~45%)

Algebra is the single most important topic on GED Math. Master equations, inequalities, and systems.

Solving One-Step and Multi-Step Equations

• Goal: isolate the variable. Use inverse operations. Whatever you do to one side, do to the other.
• One-step: 5x = 35 → divide both sides by 5 → x = 7
• Multi-step: 3x − 7 = 14 → add 7 → 3x = 21 → divide by 3 → x = 7
• With distribution: 2(x + 4) = 18 → 2x + 8 = 18 → 2x = 10 → x = 5
• Variables on both sides: 5x − 3 = 2x + 9 → subtract 2x → 3x − 3 = 9 → add 3 → 3x = 12 → x = 4

Inequalities

• Solve like equations, but flip the inequality sign when multiplying or dividing by a negative.
• Example: −3x < 12 → divide by −3 → x > −4 (sign flipped!)
• Graph on a number line: open circle = not included (<, >); closed circle = included (≤, ≥)

Linear Equations & Graphing

• Positive slope: line goes up left to right. Negative slope: line goes down left to right.
• Slope = 0: horizontal line (y = constant). Undefined slope: vertical line (x = constant).
• Parallel lines have the same slope. Perpendicular lines have slopes that are negative reciprocals (e.g., 2 and −½).

Polynomials

• Adding/Subtracting: Combine like terms (same variable, same exponent). 3x² + 5x − 2x² + x = x² + 6x
• Multiplying (FOIL for binomials): (x + 3)(x − 2) = x² − 2x + 3x − 6 = x² + x − 6
• Factoring: Reverse of distributing. Find what multiplies to give the polynomial.
• Factor out GCF: 6x² + 9x = 3x(2x + 3)
• Factor trinomials: x² + 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x + 4) — find two numbers that multiply to 12, add to 7

Quadratic Equations

Systems of Equations

• Substitution: Solve one equation for one variable, substitute into the other.
• Elimination: Add or subtract equations to eliminate one variable. May need to multiply first.
• Graphically: Solution is the intersection point of the two lines.

3. Functions

A function assigns exactly one output to each input. Every x-value maps to exactly one y-value.

Key Concepts

• Vertical Line Test: If ANY vertical line crosses a graph more than once → NOT a function.
• Function notation: f(x) reads "f of x." If f(x) = 3x − 1, then f(4) = 3(4) − 1 = 11.
• Domain: All valid input (x) values. Range: All possible output (y) values.
• Independent variable: x (input). Dependent variable: y or f(x) (output).

Types of Functions

4. Geometry & Measurement (~25%)

The GED provides a formula sheet on screen. You must know how to USE these formulas, not just find them.

Angles

• Complementary angles: Sum = 90°. Supplementary angles: Sum = 180°.
• Vertical angles: Opposite angles formed by two intersecting lines are equal.
• Parallel lines cut by a transversal: Alternate interior angles are equal; corresponding angles are equal; co-interior (same-side interior) angles are supplementary.
• Triangle angles: Always sum to 180°. Exterior angle = sum of the two non-adjacent interior angles.

Area & Perimeter Formulas

Volume & Surface Area

The Pythagorean Theorem

Coordinate Geometry

Transformations

• Translation: Slide — move every point the same direction and distance. Shape unchanged.
• Reflection: Flip over a line (x-axis, y-axis, or y=x). Mirror image.
• Rotation: Turn around a center point. 90°, 180°, 270°.
• Dilation: Scale up or down from a center point. Changes size, not shape.
• Congruent: Same shape and size. Similar: Same shape, different size (proportional sides).

5. Statistics, Probability & Data Analysis (~20%)

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean (average): Sum ÷ count. Affected by outliers.
• Median: Middle value in ordered data. For even count, average the two middle values. NOT affected by outliers.
• Mode: Most frequent value. A set can have no mode, one mode, or multiple modes.
• Range: Max − Min. Measures spread of data.

Reading Data Displays

• Bar graph: Compare quantities across categories
• Line graph: Show change over time (trends)
• Histogram: Shows frequency distribution in intervals
• Scatter plot: Shows relationship between two variables. Positive correlation = both increase together. Negative correlation = one increases as the other decreases.
• Circle/Pie chart: Shows parts of a whole. Each slice = percent of total (all slices = 100%)
• Box plot (box-and-whisker): Shows min, Q1, median (Q2), Q3, max of a data set.

Probability

• Basic probability: P(event) = favorable outcomes / total possible outcomes. Range: 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain).
• Complement rule: P(not A) = 1 − P(A)
• Independent events: One event doesn't affect the other. P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B). Example: flipping two coins.
• Dependent events: Drawing without replacement. P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B|A).
• Mutually exclusive events: Cannot both occur. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).

1. Reading Informational Texts (~75% of RLA)

Approximately half of all RLA passages are informational (nonfiction). You'll read articles, speeches, workplace documents, and historical texts. Questions test your ability to understand, analyze, and evaluate what you read.

Finding the Main Idea

• The main idea is the central point the author is making about the topic. It is broader than any single detail.
• Strategy: Ask "What is this passage mostly about?" The main idea is NOT a specific fact or example from the passage.
• Often found in the introduction or conclusion, but must be supported by the entire passage.
• The topic sentence of each paragraph states the paragraph's main idea.
• A summary captures the main idea and key supporting details in your own words.

Supporting Details & Evidence

• Supporting details are facts, examples, statistics, anecdotes, or expert opinions that back up the main idea.
• When a question says "according to the passage," the answer MUST be stated directly in the text.
• Look for signal words: "for example," "specifically," "in fact," "this shows," "as evidence."

Making Inferences

• An inference is a logical conclusion based on evidence. The answer is NOT stated directly — you must "read between the lines."
• Formula: Textual evidence + Prior knowledge = Inference
• Always go back to the text to find clues that support your inference.
• Inferences must be reasonable — don't make wild leaps beyond what the text suggests.

Author's Purpose & Point of View

• Purpose: Why did the author write this?
  • To inform/explain: gives facts, definitions, explanations (encyclopedias, news articles)
  • To persuade/argue: takes a position, uses evidence to convince you (editorials, speeches)
  • To entertain/narrate: tells a story, uses descriptive language (fiction, memoirs)
• Point of view (1st person): "I, me, we" — narrator is part of the story.
• Point of view (3rd person): "he, she, they" — narrator observes from outside.
• Author's bias: Words or framing that reveals the author's opinion or attitude.

Text Structure

Analyzing Arguments

• Claim: The author's main argument or position on an issue.
• Evidence: Facts, statistics, expert quotes, or examples used to support the claim.
• Reasoning: The logic that connects the evidence to the claim.
• Counterargument: The opposing position. Strong arguments acknowledge and refute them.
• Logical fallacies to recognize: Ad hominem (attacking the person), slippery slope (exaggerating consequences), false dichotomy (only two extreme choices), hasty generalization (broad conclusion from limited evidence).

2. Reading Literary Texts

About 25% of reading passages are literary (fiction, drama, or poetry). Know these literary terms and techniques.

Narrative Elements

• Plot: Exposition → Rising Action → Climax → Falling Action → Resolution
• Character types: Protagonist (main character), Antagonist (opposes main character), Round (complex, changes), Flat (one-dimensional)
• Character development: How and why a character changes during the story (character arc).
• Setting: Time and place. Contributes to mood and conflict.
• Theme: The universal message or lesson of the story (not the plot summary). Example: "Power corrupts those who seek it."
• Conflict types: Person vs. Person | Person vs. Nature | Person vs. Self | Person vs. Society

Tone, Mood & Figurative Language

• Tone: Author's attitude toward the subject (formal, ironic, melancholy, optimistic, sarcastic).
• Mood: The feeling created in the reader (tense, joyful, eerie, hopeful).
• Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as." "Her voice was like velvet."
• Metaphor: Direct comparison without "like/as." "Life is a rollercoaster."
• Personification: Giving human traits to non-human things. "The wind whispered through the trees."
• Alliteration: Repeated initial consonant sounds. "Peter Piper picked a peck."
• Hyperbole: Extreme exaggeration. "I've told you a million times!"
• Irony (verbal): Saying the opposite of what you mean (sarcasm). "Oh great, another Monday."
• Irony (situational): Opposite of what's expected happens. A fire station burns down.
• Symbolism: An object represents something beyond its literal meaning. A dove = peace.
• Foreshadowing: Hints about what will happen later in the story.

3. Extended Response Essay Writing (45 Minutes)

The RLA Extended Response requires you to read two passages presenting different perspectives on an issue and write an analytical essay about the strength of the arguments — NOT your personal opinion.

The RACE Strategy for Essays

Essay Structure

• Introduction (1 paragraph): Briefly introduce both passages and their topics. End with a clear, specific thesis stating which argument is stronger and why.
• Body Paragraph 1: First reason the argument you chose is stronger. Use evidence (quote or paraphrase) from the passage + explain.
• Body Paragraph 2: Second piece of evidence / second reason. Connect to thesis.
• Body Paragraph 3 (optional): Address a weakness or acknowledge the opposing argument, then refute it using evidence.
• Conclusion (1 paragraph): Restate your thesis in different words. Summarize your main points. Final thought on significance.

What Graders Look For (3 Trait Scoring)

Strong Transition Words for Essays

4. Grammar & Language Conventions

Sentence Structure

• Simple sentence: One independent clause. "She studied hard."
• Compound sentence: Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) or semicolon. "She studied hard, and she passed the exam."
• Complex sentence: One independent + one dependent clause with a subordinating conjunction. "Because she studied hard, she passed."
• Run-on: Two independent clauses joined without proper punctuation. Fix by: adding a period, semicolon, or conjunction.
• Fragment: An incomplete sentence missing a subject, verb, or complete thought. Fix by adding the missing element.

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Singular subject → singular verb. "The dog runs." Plural subject → plural verb. "The dogs run."
• Tricky singular subjects: everyone, everyone, nobody, neither, either, each, one — always singular.
• Compound subjects with "and" → plural. "Tom and Jerry are..." With "or/nor" → match the subject closer to the verb. "Neither the teacher nor the students were ready."
• Collective nouns (team, group, committee) → usually singular in American English. "The team is playing well."
• Phrases between subject and verb don't change agreement. "The box of chocolates was opened." (box = singular subject)

Pronouns

• Pronouns must agree with their antecedent (the noun they replace) in number and gender.
• Singular indefinite pronouns (someone, everyone, anyone, nobody): "Everyone brought his or her lunch." → Now acceptable: "Everyone brought their lunch."
• Pronoun case: Subject pronouns: I, he, she, we, they, who. Object pronouns: me, him, her, us, them, whom.
• Test: Remove one pronoun in a pair. "Give it to Sarah and I/me." → "Give it to me." → Correct: "Give it to Sarah and me."
• Ambiguous reference: "After John called Mike, he left." — who left? Rewrite to clarify.

Punctuation Rules

• Commas: Before FANBOYS joining independent clauses. After introductory phrases/clauses. Separating items in a series. Around non-essential (parenthetical) information.
• Semicolons: Join two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction. "She studied; she passed."
• Apostrophes: Possessive (cat's toy). Contraction (don't = do not). Never use for simple plurals.
• Colons: Introduce a list, explanation, or quotation. Must have an independent clause before the colon.
• Quotation marks: Around exact words of a speaker or a title of a short work (article, poem, episode).

Commonly Confused Words

1. Cell Biology & Life Science (~40% of Science)

Cell Theory

• All living things are composed of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells (biogenesis).

Cell Structure & Organelles

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

• Prokaryotic cells: NO membrane-bound nucleus. DNA floats freely. Smaller and simpler. Examples: bacteria, archaea.
• Eukaryotic cells: HAS a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. More complex. Examples: animal, plant, fungal, protist cells.

Cell Transport

• Passive transport: Movement from high to low concentration — NO energy needed.
• Diffusion: Molecules spread from high → low concentration. Example: oxygen into cells.
• Osmosis: Diffusion of WATER through a semipermeable membrane from high to low water concentration.
• Active transport: Movement AGAINST the concentration gradient (low → high). REQUIRES energy (ATP). Example: sodium-potassium pump.

Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration

2. Genetics & Heredity

DNA Structure & Protein Synthesis

• DNA = double helix made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a sugar, phosphate, and one of 4 nitrogen bases: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine.
• Base pairing rules: A pairs with T; G pairs with C.
• A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.
• DNA → RNA → Protein (Central Dogma of Molecular Biology)
• Mutation: Change in DNA sequence. Can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral. Can be inherited or caused by environmental factors (radiation, chemicals).

Chromosomes & Cell Division

• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in most cells.
• Diploid (2n): Full set of chromosomes (46 in humans) — body cells.
• Haploid (n): Half the chromosomes (23 in humans) — sex cells (sperm, egg).
• Mitosis: PMAT — Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. Result: 2 identical diploid daughter cells. For growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
• Meiosis: Two rounds of division (Meiosis I and II). Result: 4 non-identical haploid cells (gametes). For sexual reproduction. Creates genetic diversity through crossing over.

Mendelian Genetics

• Allele: A version of a gene. Represented by letters (A = dominant, a = recessive).
• Genotype: Genetic makeup (AA, Aa, or aa). Phenotype: Physical expression of the genotype.
• Homozygous: AA or aa (two of the same). Heterozygous: Aa (two different).
• Dominant allele: Expressed if at least one copy is present. Recessive: Only expressed if homozygous (aa).
• Punnett Square: Predicts probability of offspring genotypes. Monohybrid cross = one trait.

• Codominance: Both alleles are equally expressed. Example: blood type AB (both A and B antigens present).
• Incomplete dominance: Blend of both traits. Red + White flowers → Pink flowers.
• Sex-linked traits: Traits on the X chromosome (color blindness, hemophilia). More common in males (XY) because they only have one X chromosome.

Evolution & Natural Selection

• Darwin's Natural Selection: Organisms with traits better adapted to their environment survive longer and reproduce more. Favorable traits become more common over generations.
• Evidence for evolution: Fossil record | Comparative anatomy (homologous structures) | DNA similarities | Biogeography
• Adaptations: Inherited traits that increase an organism's fitness (ability to survive and reproduce) in its environment.
• Speciation: When populations become isolated and evolve separately until they can no longer interbreed — becoming separate species.

3. Human Body Systems

4. Physical Science: Chemistry (~20%)

Atomic Structure

• Atoms = protons (positive, in nucleus) + neutrons (neutral, in nucleus) + electrons (negative, orbit nucleus)
• Atomic number = number of protons (defines the element). Mass number = protons + neutrons.
• Isotopes: Same element (same protons), different number of neutrons. Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14.
• Ions: Atoms that gain or lose electrons. Cation = lost electrons (positive). Anion = gained electrons (negative).

The Periodic Table

• Elements organized by increasing atomic number. Periods = rows (horizontal). Groups/Families = columns (vertical).
• Metals (left/center): shiny, conduct electricity, malleable. Nonmetals (right): poor conductors. Metalloids (staircase): have properties of both.
• Group 1 (Alkali metals): Very reactive. Group 17 (Halogens): Highly reactive nonmetals. Group 18 (Noble gases): Very stable, rarely react.
• Elements in the same group have similar properties because they have the same number of valence electrons.

Chemical Bonds & Reactions

• Ionic bond: Transfer of electrons between metal and nonmetal. Creates ions. Example: NaCl (table salt).
• Covalent bond: Sharing of electrons between nonmetals. Example: H₂O, CO₂, O₂.
• Chemical equation: Reactants → Products. Must be balanced (same number of each atom on both sides).
• Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction — atoms are rearranged.
• Exothermic reaction: Releases energy (heat). Combustion, oxidation. Endothermic reaction: Absorbs energy. Photosynthesis, cooking.

Acids, Bases & pH

5. Physics: Forces, Motion & Energy (~20%)

Newton's Three Laws of Motion

• First Law (Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest; an object in motion stays in motion at the same speed and direction — UNLESS acted upon by an unbalanced (net) force.
• Second Law: F = ma. Net force = mass × acceleration. The greater the mass, the more force needed to accelerate. The greater the force, the more acceleration.
• Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. A rocket pushes gas backward → gas pushes rocket forward.

Work, Energy & Power

• Law of Conservation of Energy: Total energy in a closed system remains constant. Energy can convert (PE → KE → thermal), but cannot be created or destroyed.
• Types of energy: Kinetic | Potential (gravitational, elastic, chemical) | Thermal | Electromagnetic (light, radio) | Nuclear | Sound

Waves

• Transverse waves: Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave direction. Examples: light, electromagnetic waves, water waves.
• Longitudinal waves: Particles vibrate parallel to wave direction. Example: sound waves.
• Wavelength (λ): Distance between two crests (or troughs). Frequency (f): Number of waves per second (Hertz). Amplitude: Wave height — determines energy/intensity.
• Wave speed: v = f × λ (frequency × wavelength)
• Electromagnetic spectrum (low → high frequency): Radio → Microwave → Infrared → Visible Light → Ultraviolet → X-ray → Gamma ray

Electricity & Magnetism

• Electric current: Flow of electric charge (electrons). Measured in amperes (A).
• Voltage: The "push" that drives current. Measured in volts (V). Resistance: Opposition to flow. Measured in ohms (Ω).
• Ohm's Law: V = IR (Voltage = Current × Resistance)
• Series circuit: All components on a single path. If one breaks, all stop. Parallel circuit: Multiple paths. If one breaks, others continue.
• Magnetism: Moving charges create magnetic fields. Opposite poles attract; like poles repel.

6. Earth & Space Science (~20%)

Earth's Structure & Plate Tectonics

• Layers: Crust (thin, rocky outer shell) → Mantle (thick, semi-solid rock, convection currents) → Outer Core (liquid iron/nickel) → Inner Core (solid iron/nickel)
• Plate tectonics: Earth's crust consists of about 15 major tectonic plates that move 2–5 cm/year due to convection in the mantle.
• Convergent boundary: Plates collide → mountains or subduction zones (oceanic plates sink under continental). Causes earthquakes, volcanic arcs.
• Divergent boundary: Plates move apart → rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges. Allows magma to rise and form new crust.
• Transform boundary: Plates slide past each other → earthquakes. Example: San Andreas Fault.
• Seismic waves: P-waves (primary, through solids/liquids), S-waves (secondary, through solids only), Surface waves (most damage).

The Rock Cycle

Atmosphere & Weather

• Atmospheric layers: Troposphere (0–12 km, weather occurs here) → Stratosphere (ozone layer, 12–50 km) → Mesosphere → Thermosphere → Exosphere
• Water cycle: Evaporation (liquid→gas) → Transpiration (plants release vapor) → Condensation (vapor→liquid, clouds form) → Precipitation (rain, snow, sleet) → Runoff/Infiltration → Collection
• Fronts: Cold front: fast-moving cold air pushes under warm air → thunderstorms. Warm front: warm air slides over cold → prolonged rain. Stationary front: neither moves → extended precipitation.
• Greenhouse effect: CO₂, methane, and water vapor trap heat from the sun in Earth's atmosphere. Enhanced greenhouse effect from human activity → global warming.
• Climate zones: Tropical (near equator), Temperate (mid-latitudes), Polar (near poles), Arid (desert), Mediterranean

The Solar System & Universe

• Planets (in order): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars | Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune (Inner rocky planets, outer gas giants)
• Earth's moon: Causes tides (gravitational pull), lunar phases (new, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full, waning gibbous, third quarter, waning crescent)
• Sun: A medium-sized star. Core undergoes nuclear fusion (H → He), releasing enormous energy as light and heat.
• Stars: Born in nebulae. Life cycle: Nebula → Protostar → Main Sequence Star → (varies by size) → Red Giant/Supergiant → White Dwarf / Neutron Star / Black Hole
• Big Bang Theory: The universe began ~13.8 billion years ago from an extremely hot, dense state and has been expanding ever since.

1. Civics & Government (50% of Social Studies)

Foundations of American Democracy

• Popular sovereignty: Government power comes from the consent of the governed — the people.
• Social contract theory: John Locke argued people have natural rights (life, liberty, property). Government exists to protect these rights. If it fails, people can overthrow it.
• Key founding documents: Magna Carta (1215) | Mayflower Compact (1620) | Common Sense by Thomas Paine (1776) | Declaration of Independence (1776) | Articles of Confederation (1781) | U.S. Constitution (1787) | Federalist Papers

The U.S. Constitution

• Preamble: "We the People..." — establishes popular sovereignty, lists the goals of the new government.
• 7 Articles: Article I (Legislative), Article II (Executive), Article III (Judicial), Article IV (States), Article V (Amendments), Article VI (Supremacy), Article VII (Ratification)
• Amendment process: 2/3 of Congress proposes + ¾ of states ratify. OR Constitutional Convention called by 2/3 of states.
• 27 Amendments: First 10 = Bill of Rights (1791).

The Bill of Rights — First 10 Amendments

Other Key Amendments

• 13th (1865): Abolished slavery.
• 14th (1868): Citizenship to all born/naturalized in U.S.; equal protection; due process. Overturned Dred Scott decision.
• 15th (1870): Right to vote regardless of race, color, or previous servitude (Black men).
• 17th (1913): Direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote (previously chosen by state legislatures).
• 19th (1920): Right to vote regardless of sex (women's suffrage).
• 22nd (1951): Presidential term limit — maximum 2 terms.
• 24th (1964): Abolished poll taxes in federal elections.
• 26th (1971): Voting age lowered to 18.

The Three Branches — Powers & Checks

The Legislative Branch (Congress)

• Senate: 100 senators (2 per state). 6-year terms. Approves treaties (2/3), confirms appointments, tries impeachments.
• House of Representatives: 435 members. Representation based on state population. 2-year terms. Originates revenue (tax) bills, brings articles of impeachment.
• How a bill becomes a law: Introduced → Committee review → Floor debate and vote in both chambers → Conference committee (if differences) → President signs or vetoes → Congress can override veto with 2/3 majority in both chambers.

Federalism

• Federal (national) powers: Print money, declare war, regulate interstate commerce, make treaties, postal system.
• State powers (reserved): Education, marriage laws, driver's licenses, intrastate commerce, police powers.
• Concurrent powers (both): Levy taxes, build roads, enforce laws, establish courts, borrow money.
• Supremacy Clause: Federal law is the "supreme law of the land" when it conflicts with state law.

2. U.S. History (20% of Social Studies)

Colonial Era to Revolution

• 13 original colonies established by Britain between 1607 (Jamestown, VA) and 1733 (Georgia).
• French and Indian War (1754–1763): Britain vs. France. Britain won but was deeply in debt.
• Taxation without representation: Britain imposed taxes (Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, Tea Act). Colonists protested — "No taxation without representation!"
• Boston Massacre (1770): British soldiers killed 5 colonists. Used as propaganda by patriots.
• Boston Tea Party (1773): Colonists dumped British tea into Boston Harbor, protesting the Tea Act.
• First Continental Congress (1774): Delegates from 12 colonies met to address British policies.

Expansion & Conflict (1800s)

• Louisiana Purchase (1803): Jefferson bought 828,000 sq. miles from France, doubling the nation's size.
• Manifest Destiny: Belief that U.S. was destined to expand across the North American continent.
• Missouri Compromise (1820): Missouri admitted as slave state, Maine as free. Drew a line at 36°30' for future territories.
• Indian Removal Act (1830): Forced relocation of Native Americans to territory west of the Mississippi. Led to the Trail of Tears (1838–1839) — thousands of Cherokee died.
• Mexican-American War (1846–1848): U.S. gained present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming — Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
• Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): Supreme Court ruled enslaved people were not citizens and Congress could not ban slavery in territories.

Civil War & Reconstruction

• Causes of Civil War: Slavery, states' rights, economic differences (industrial North vs. agrarian South), election of Lincoln (1860).
• Secession: 11 Southern states formed the Confederacy (February 1861). Confederate capital: Richmond, VA.
• Civil War (1861–1865): Union (North) vs. Confederacy (South). Key battles: Bull Run, Antietam, Gettysburg (turning point, July 1863), Sherman's March to the Sea.
• Emancipation Proclamation (Jan. 1, 1863): Lincoln declared enslaved people in Confederate states free. Changed the war's moral purpose.
• Gettysburg Address (1863): Lincoln's speech honoring the war dead. Defined the war as a fight for equality and democracy.
• Reconstruction (1865–1877): Plan to rebuild the South and integrate freed enslaved people. 13th, 14th, 15th Amendments passed. Opposed by Southern resistance (Black Codes, KKK). Ended with Compromise of 1877.

20th Century U.S. History

3. Economics (15% of Social Studies)

Fundamental Economic Concepts

• Scarcity: Resources are limited; wants are unlimited. This forces choices. Opportunity cost: The value of the next-best alternative you give up when making a choice.
• Factors of production: Land (natural resources) | Labor (human work) | Capital (tools, machinery, money) | Entrepreneurship (organizing the others)
• Economic systems: Traditional (customs), Command/Planned (government controls), Market/Capitalism (private ownership, free market), Mixed (combination of market and government)

Supply & Demand in Depth

• Law of Demand: As price increases, quantity demanded decreases (inverse relationship). Demand curve slopes downward.
• Law of Supply: As price increases, quantity supplied increases (direct relationship). Supply curve slopes upward.
• Market equilibrium: Price where quantity supplied = quantity demanded. No surplus or shortage.
• Demand shifters: Income, consumer tastes, prices of related goods, expectations, number of buyers.
• Supply shifters: Input costs, technology, government policies (taxes/subsidies), number of sellers, expectations.
• Surplus: Supply > Demand → price falls. Shortage: Demand > Supply → price rises.

Macroeconomics

• GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year. GDP = C + I + G + (X−M). Rising GDP = economic growth.
• Inflation: General rise in price levels. Reduces purchasing power. Caused by too much money chasing too few goods. Measured by CPI (Consumer Price Index).
• Deflation: General decrease in price levels. Can lead to economic stagnation.
• Recession: Two or more consecutive quarters of negative GDP growth. Depression: Severe, prolonged recession.
• Unemployment types: Frictional (between jobs, searching) | Structural (skills mismatch with available jobs) | Cyclical (due to economic downturn) | Seasonal (based on time of year)
• Business cycle: Expansion (growth) → Peak → Contraction/Recession → Trough → Recovery

Government Economic Policies

• Fiscal policy: Government use of spending and taxation to influence the economy. Expansionary: increase spending + cut taxes (stimulate growth). Contractionary: cut spending + raise taxes (slow inflation).
• Monetary policy: Federal Reserve (Fed) controls money supply and interest rates. Expansionary: lower interest rates, buy bonds (stimulate). Contractionary: raise rates, sell bonds (slow inflation).
• National debt: Total amount the government owes from borrowing. Budget deficit: When government spends more than it earns in a year. Budget surplus: When it earns more than it spends.
• Progressive tax: Higher incomes pay higher rates (federal income tax). Regressive tax: Takes higher percentage from lower incomes (sales tax). Flat (proportional) tax: Same percentage for all.

International Trade

• Comparative advantage: Countries specialize in and export goods they can produce most efficiently relative to others.
• Protectionism: Policies to protect domestic industries: tariffs (taxes on imports), quotas (limits on imports), subsidies (government payments to domestic producers).
• Free trade: No tariffs or barriers. More efficient global production. Critics say it can hurt domestic workers.
• Trade deficit: Imports > exports. Trade surplus: Exports > imports.

4. Geography (15% of Social Studies)

Five Themes of Geography

• Location: Absolute (exact — latitude/longitude) or Relative (in relation to other places — "north of the river").
• Place: Physical (landforms, climate) and human (culture, language, buildings) characteristics.
• Human-Environment Interaction: How people adapt to, modify, and depend on the environment.
• Movement: Movement of people, goods, ideas across places. Migration patterns, trade routes, communication.
• Region: Areas with common characteristics (formal, functional, perceptual regions).

Physical Geography

• Latitude & Longitude: Latitude = horizontal (parallels), 0° = equator, ranges 90°N to 90°S. Longitude = vertical (meridians), 0° = Prime Meridian (Greenwich), ranges 180°E to 180°W.
• Major landforms: Mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys, peninsulas, islands, deltas, canyons
• Major bodies of water: Oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, Southern), seas, gulfs, bays, rivers, lakes, straits
• Biomes: Tropical rainforest | Savanna | Desert | Temperate grassland (prairie) | Temperate deciduous forest | Taiga (boreal forest) | Tundra
• Climate factors: Latitude (most important), altitude, ocean currents, proximity to water, prevailing winds, mountain ranges

Human Geography

• Population density: Number of people per unit area. High in: East Asia, South Asia, Europe, Eastern U.S.
• Urbanization: Movement of people from rural areas to cities. Over 50% of world's population now lives in urban areas.
• Push and pull factors of migration: Push (war, famine, poverty, oppression) vs. Pull (jobs, safety, freedom, better quality of life).
• Cultural diffusion: Spread of cultural elements (ideas, customs, technology) from one culture to another through contact.
• Globalization: Increased interconnectedness of the world through trade, technology, communication, and migration. Promotes economic development; critics note cultural homogenization and inequality.